WHAT SHOULD YOUR DRAFT CONTAIN?

You must write a draft:

Use it to give yourself feedback and to get feedback from your friends and your tutor - and submit it to get credit for having done it. We do not mark the draft, but you cannot pass without submitting an adequate draft in time to get feedback.

Your draft must contain a bibliography and referencing that shows you understand the key word, key number rule, and know how to use the Harvard method of referencing.

Your referencing should demonstrate that you are using the required and recommended sources for the essay. These will be found with the advice for each essay title

If you are using Social Science History, you should reference that, and show that you know how to reference quotes by one author in another author's book

If you use internet sources, you should show that you know how to use the key word, key number rule in internet referencing

Different people draft differently. Some people write a complete essay as their first draft. Other people write a draft introduction with some key paragraphs. We do not want notes (see above), and the nearer your draft is to a complete essay, the better. It should also contain all the parts required. However, it will be acceptable incomplete. It is much better to submit incomplete than not to submit. Some people add notes about points on which they would like advice.

Your draft should have an Introduction that explains what it is about and gives (at least) an outline of the order of topics. It is desirable that it contain a statement of your argument and a provisional summary of your essay.

Your draft should demonstrate that

• you have studied how to write and essay

• read the advice for your essay title carefully

• acted on any feedback already given to you

	Read about the kind of draft we want Read about basic requirements Follow the submission instructions

THE KIND OF ESSAY WE WANT:

Different courses have different aims and expect different forms of essay. So you need to learn the skill of finding out what kind of essay is required.

This course aims to develop your abilities to recognise, analyse and construct theory; and to write essays about it. The kind of essay we want is related to this:

The course requires competent Harvard referencing as a condition of passing. Learning the principles of referencing thoroughly at the beginning of the course will mean that you can then concentrate on the content of your essay.

Referencing primary sources is particularly important.

an outline of the structure of the essay,
a statement of what the essay is arguing and
a summary of the essay.

• make clear the relevant theories.
• This means that you must show that you know and understand the theories.
• It should explain the reasoning (argument) of the authors who are being discussed.

• How you relate the issues in the question
• The evidence for your argument. You need to pursue the argument made in the introduction logically (rationally) in the body of the essay.

It must not be copied (even with some words altered).

It must not be copied from books.
It must not be copied from your lecture notes.
It must not be copied from another person's essay.
It must not be copied from the internet.

For more information about referencing, primary sources, introductions, structure, summaries, arguments, bibliographies, the Harvard system and conclusions, see the ABC Study Guide.

You are unlikely to fail if you follow the essay advice given for your question - Including the referencing advice

YOU WILL FAIL IF:

Any part of your essay, apart from quotations, is copied.

You do not demonstrate sufficient knowledge and understanding.

You do not demonstrate sufficient competence at essay writing.

The main reason students fail is their referencing. You fail if;

• There is no bibliography at the end of your essay

• You have two lists of books at the end of your essay, one of which is marked "references"

• You do not have references (Key word and number and page or paragraph) in the text

• You use numbers for references instead of brackets in the text

• You have not got a bibliography entry corresponding to the references in your text. There should be no references without a corresponding bibliography entry. (Bloggs, A. 1999 p.-) in the text, should have an entry for Bloggs, A. 1999 (title and publisher) in the bibliography.

• The key word in the reference does not match the key word in the bibliography.
  do you know the key word rule?

• Your references do not include page numbers. (The bibliography should not contain page numbers)

• Every quote is not referenced.

• You have only referenced the quotes, and not other parts of your essay.
  you need to reference more than quotes

• Your references are copied out of the books you use, instead of being your own references to those books

• Your essay does not have enough references

• Only quotes are referenced [But this could considerably reduce your grade because the evidence for what you say will not be clear]
• Some references do not have page numbers. [For the same reason, this may reduce your garde]
• Some page numbers are given in the bibliography.
• Key word is not used correctly.
• Title used in the reference. (It should be in the bibliography)
• Phrases like "op.cit" and "ibid" are used.
• The bibliography is not in alphabetical order by key word.
• The bibliography is numbered.
• The same book is entered repeatedly in the bibliography
• Fancy fonts or justification are used for the bibliography in a way that confuses the reader.
• References are not all in (curved brackets).

You have to "fully reference" your essay. There is no precise definition of what "fully" means here. As a rule of thumb, on this course, we usually accept an essay with at least two references on every page. You may have many more, but if you have less than two per page you should ask yourself why?

Science:

	Read about the kind of essay we want

"What is science? Compare and contrast the ideas of Locke, and Wollstonecraft. Discuss these in relation to one or two of the following theorists, and develop your own opinion.

Bacon, Beccaria, Bentham, Comte, Darwin, Durkheim, Ford, Filmer, Freud, Hobbes, James Mill, John Stuart Mill, Malthus, Macaulay, Marx/Engels, Morgan, Newton, Owen, Poincare, Popper, Russell, Thompson/Wheeler, Weber, Wegener.

Use Social Science History, Essay 3, "What is Science? The Ideas of Locke, Hume and Wollstonecraft" to develop your own understanding the difference between the way Locke and Wollstonecraft thought about science. Without a clear understanding of the difference between their theories, you will get confused. [Make sure you reference well]

As well as the above essay, you could use the extracts from Locke's book on knowledge: "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding"

Chose your third theorist early. You will not be able to plan your essay competently without knowing who you are going to discuss in relation to Locke and Wollstonecraft.

Locke and Wollstonecraft, and all the writers with red links, are writing theories about how science should work. This is called epistemology, which means knowledge-ology, or theory of knowledge. (Click on the blue link to see what Social Science History says).

You may want to examine how Locke and Wollstonecraft's theories of knowledge compare to a modern theorist, such as Karl Popper, Bertrand Russell or Julie Ford and her fairy tale science.

Others are better known for the science (natural or social) that they wrote than for their theories about science. With these you could examine whether the way they develop their theories fits in with Locke or Wollstonecraft's epistemologies. Examples discussed below include Beccaria (a founder of criminology as a science) - Bentham (a founder of sociology and criminology)- Filmer - Freud - Marx and Engels and Newton - With any of these you could consider whether they stick carefully to empirical evidence, as Locke suggests, or argues from first principles, speculates and possibly follows passions, as Wollstonecraft thinks necessary.

The order in which you discuss the theorists should be the one that makes it easiest to relate them. If you start with the earliest one you may find the later one's compare their own theories to his (or hers).

some suggestions relating to your third author: Bacon - Beccaria - Bentham - Darwin - Durkheim - Filmer - Freud - Ford - Hobbes - Marx and Engels - John Stuart Mill - Newton - Popper - Bacon. You could begin with the timeline on Bacon. What is induction? How does it relate to empiricism and observation? Then look at my Social Science History section on Bacon. You will see that I say I disagree with him about the value of the theories we inherit. How does Bacon think theory relates to observation? Some students may want to argue in favour of Bacon, others against. Beccaria Read Of Crimes and Punishments (Notice the index at the side). What does Beccaria think about reason and passion in criminal trials? Can you outline his theory of crime and punishment? Does he get this theory by careful observation (as Locke argued he should)? If so, what are the observations? Does he argue from first principles (as Wollstonecraft argued he should?). If so, what are the first principles? Wollstonecraft has an evolutionary view of science in which we learn from our mistakes. Does Beccaria see any role for errors? Several students have said that Beccaria believes in reason and some have distinguished between believing in rational punishment and believing in reason as a basis for science. Can you show both from his text? One student argues that Beccaria's theory is "not based on science, but on justice"? Perhaps there are two worlds of knowledge: knowledge of what is (science) and knowledge of what ought to be (justice)? Consider this quote, which some students referred to: "If we look into history we shall find that laws, which are, or ought to be, conventions between men in a state of freedom, have been, for the most part the work of the passions of a few, or the consequences of a fortuitous or temporary necessity; not dictated by a cool examiner of human nature, who knew how to collect in one point the actions of a multitude, and had this only end in view, the greatest happiness of the greatest number." Is "the greatest happiness" a first principle of reason, or a careful empirical observation? Bentham Is utilitarianism based on careful observations (as Locke argued science should be), or is it constructed from first principles (as Wollstonecraft argued it should be)?. Look at why Macaulay criticised Bentham's utilitarianism Darwin. Consider if his theories were developed as a result of careful observation, free of imaginative distortions (as Locke recommended) or of creative imagination (as Wollstonecraft recommended). The biography entry for Darwin is a good point to start. See Science: the case for observation: Darwin and Freud by Jessica Lynn Anderson Durkheim. You could consider if his theories developed as a result of careful observation, free of imaginative distortions (as Locke recommended) or used his creative imagination (as Wollstonecraft recommended). Many people argue that his theories were based on careful observation. Social Science History chapter 6 argues that his theories were developed by his imagination before being tested by observation. You could go deeper than this by thinking about what Durkheim says he is doing - what he says science is. You could think about what he means by social facts in Rules of Sociological Method and what he writes about knowledge in The Elementary Forms of Religious Life Filmer. Some students have understood Filmer to argue that everything (including knowledge) comes from God. This is a reasonable interpretation. However, Filmer also argues that we gain knowledge from the nature of things. That is, from studying what exists. [This is not the same as the empiricist argument that all true knowledge comes from observation]. For example, the nature of the world we live in shows us that society is not something we construct from nothing. We are born into families and societies which we are not consulted about and we rarely do have much say in who has authority over us. [See, for example, Filmer, R. 1652 par O.11, where he is arguing against Hobbes]. The Social Science Dictionary article on prescription discusses this and relates it to Wollstonecraft. Ford See Science: the case for imagination: Mary Wollstonecraft and Julienne Ford by Stephanie Delgado Freud (See also the note on Hume - Which may help you to relate Locke, Freud and Wollstonecraft) Read Beautiful Baby by Laura Leyland and the extracts from An Outline of Psychoanalysis and Interpretation of Dreams. See if your essay can answer these three questions: 1) What does Freud do when he is psychoanalysing people? 2) What are the observations he makes? 3) Does he need to use his imagination in order to create his theory? The answers should enable you to say in what ways Freud's science follows Locke and in what ways it follows Wollstonecraft. Freud says that "Every science is based on observations and experiences" - which relates him to Locke. But he also says that we make observations "through the medium of our psychical apparatus", by which he seems to mean that we look at the world through theories. This relates him to Wollstonecraft. If you read the preceding paragraph, you will find a link that takes you to the note about Kant's view of science. Mary Wollstonecraft also used Kant's ideas. See Science: the case for observation: Darwin and Freud by Jessica Lynn Anderson Hobbes not only has a theory of knowledge (empiricism), he was also a natural scientist who studied optics and a social scientist Read about Hobbes: an example of a Baconian science and Bacon, Hobbes and Newton as well as chapter two of Social Science History. You should be able to both compare Hobbes' theory of knowledge to the other two authors, and consider how much his theories about society make use of careful observation or are based on first principles and/or imagination Marx and Engels Read the article on historical materialism. Are Marx and Engels writing about the method of science? (As Locke and Wollstonecraft were). Or do they define science differently, by its intellectual content? Can you see observation or theoretical observation in what they do? What content do they think is essential to science? Relate your arguments to the writings of Marx and Engels. See, for example, First Premises of Materialist Method in The German Ideology. John Stuart Mill. Read about John Stuart Mill's theories in Social Science History with this question in mind: Mill defends both induction and deduction. What are they and how do they relate to Locke's call for careful observation and Mary Wollstonecraft's call for reasoning from first principles? Newton was a natural scientist who many of the other theorists considered to be a model of what a scientist should be. Read about Bacon, Hobbes and Newton in chapter two of Social Science History. How do Newton's theories relate to empirical observation, and how do they relate to mental constructions made by his creative imagination?. As with the other theorists, click on his name for more suggestions. Popper. You may want to consider Karl Popper alongside Julie Ford

A group on science looked for words they could agree on to distinguish some theories. They decided on theological for Filmer, rational for Locke, Beccaria and Wollstonecraft, and materialist for Marx and Engels. What do you think?

Plato and Aristotle

	Read about the kind of essay we want

Timeline and resource links: Ancient Greece   Plato   Aristotle -
Planning advice - referencing advice

Outline Plato and Aristotle's concepts of reason and politics. Show how they relate these to gender. Reference your answer to Plato's Republic and Aristotle's Politics

Plato and Aristotle have very different ideas about the relevance of gender to social theory. Diana Coole argues that most theories in western culture contain some combination of these two positions. Studying the two positions could, therefore, give you an intellectual grip on a lot of other theories.

See key concepts) for more about Diana Coole's ideas. Notice the contrast that she makes between reason and passion (or appetite). If you look at the chart about Plato's ideas you will see that reason should govern passion (appetite) in both politics (the state) and personality (the soul).

The Lecture notes should help you to relate reason, politics and gender in each theorist. The substantial part of your research for this question will be reading the primary sources to discover, for yourself, the relationships. You can use the indexes to The Republic and Politics extracts to help find the most relevant parts. The planning advice includes links to relevant index entries.

The primary sources are: Aristotle's Politics and Plato's The Republic. You can use the web copy of Plato's Republic and the Aristotle extracts on the web. Both of these have an index of concepts, which should help you find relevant parts. Notice that (near the top, on the right) there is a key quote from each author

Copies of Plato's Republic and Aristotle's Politics can be bought quite cheaply. I recommend that you buy a copy of one or both so that you can mark the passages you may want to reference or quote. Carry it around with you and read and mark it when you can.

If you are only buying one, it is probably best to buy The Republic and use the Aristotle extracts extracts on the web. These include the parts of Aristotle we expect to be referred to in essays.

Reading The Republic

If your version of The Republic has a contents list with chapter headings, use those as clue to which parts to read. The web edition is that of Benjamin Jowett (1901). The first page has a list of chapters, with headings, which I have followed by the Stephanus page numbers. You will find that other translations of The Republic break it into different chapters, with different titles. The Stephanus page numbers enable you to relate editions. In modern translations you usually find them in the margins. In the following advice, the Stephanus page number links will take you to that part of the web edition.

Analysing the question and planning:

There are different ways of planning this essay, but a successful plan must cover each aspect of the question. Here is a plan to compare with yours. It is arranged so that you can explore Plato and then compare Aristotle to him. The question is repeated first so that you can check each concept against it and make sure nothing is missing. I have put in links to the web texts and to the indexes on each concept.

Outline Plato and Aristotle's concepts of reason and politics. Show how they relate these to gender. Reference your answer to Plato's Republic and Aristotle's Politics

Plan points	index
Plato's concept of reason in The Republic and The Meno	reason - wisdom
How Plato's concept of reason relates to politics	politics
Plato on reason in men and women	See The Meno
Plato on women in politics	women and men
How Aristotle's concept of reason in The Politics agrees with Plato's	reason
How Aristotle's concept of reason differs from Plato's
How Aristotle's concept of reason relates to politics	the State
How Aristotle's concept of reason relates to gender	women
Aristotle on women in politics
Strengths and weaknesses of each argument

Some people have a problem identifying what Plato is saying about reason. They may, however, have identified what he is saying about wisdom. Think about whether the words mean the same or something similar. Also, have a look at Plato's Meno. Here Socrates argues that women use the same virtues in ordering the house (justice and temperance) as men do in ordering the state. Could these virtues be considered as reason?

With respect to reason, try reading the section of The Republic (Stephanus 471c following) which is described as being on the Philosopher Ruler in the Penguin version.

Starting Stephanus 373e there is a dialogue between Glaucon and Socrates about the qualities needed in individuals and the state.

About Stephanus 376 they are discussing what Jowett translates as "love of wisdom", "love of learning" and "philosophy". Would these have anything to do with "reason"?

About Stephanus 420b, Socrates explains that he thinks the aim of the state should be the good of the whole community.

About Stephanus 454, Socrates discusses the virtues of men and women. He asks what differences there are apart from the sexual ones. Remember that reason is a virtue.

About Stephanus p.457-461, Socrates suggests the Guardians will have "wives and children" in common. Why doe he suggest this? What has it got to do with reason and passion?

Look at the timeline for the English Civil War - Hobbes - Locke. You will want to show knowledge of the history. Also look at the lecture notes and the advice on referencing this question

The Social Science History source you should use is:

• Essay 2, Hobbes, Filmer and Locke

Relate this to

• Extracts from Locke's The Second Treatise of Government

• and/or the extracts from Hobbes' Leviathan

You may have guessed (correctly) from the essay title that the keys to this question are Hobbes' and Locke's ideas about reason. These are the ideas that will help you explain why their state of nature theories reached different conclusions about society

A good essay on this subject will focus on the two author's ideas of reason and how these relate to their ideas about how society is formed. It is a good idea to start with the ideas of reason and show how the ideas of society can be developed from the ideas of reason.

Possible plan with links to relevant reading:

Hobbes' idea of reason

How Hobbes' idea of society is developed from his idea of reason.

Locke's idea of reason

How Locke's idea of society is developed from his idea of reason.

The following advice links you to the part of the Social Science History essay that contrasts Hobbes and Locke on reason. The essay has links that take you to relevant parts of the extracts from Hobbes and Locke. A good essay will relate its analysis to quotations from Hobbes and Locke.

The key passage in Social Science History that contrasts Hobbes and Locke on reason, and relates that to their view of society, is at the end (pages 51 to 52). Click here for the web version. This passage is commentary on

• Hobbes' chains of reason idea (which takes place within the individual) and

• Locke's idea that through reason we recognise a basic similarity (equality) of all individuals to one another.

Considering Hobbes' definition of reason in relation to his empiricist view of chains of reason (above) should help you. To relate Locke's empiricism to his idea of reason, click on the "equality" link above and think about how we can empirically induce the equality of human beings.

By using the recommended sources, you should be able to write an essay that explains systematically the logic of the two author's thinking and references it to their work. The general books and weblinks lists on Hobbes and Locke may contain material you will want to use to supplement the recommended sources.

Hobbes, Weber, Durkheim,

	Read about the kind of essay we want

How do Hobbes, Weber and Durkheim relate the individual to society?

Begin by reading Social Science History, Essay 6, Durkheim and Weber's Contrasting Imaginations and relate this to the Hobbes parts of Essay 2, Hobbes, Filmer and Locke.

For your second source you should use the extracts from Weber and Durkheim

It is important to focus your essay on how each author relates the individual to society. The Social Science Dictionary article discussing society and the individual should help you with the concepts. The way you plan your essay will help you focus it.

In planning, you need to decide on the order to deal with the authors. I suggest you start with Hobbes, because he is the earliest theorist. He can then provide a model to compare Weber and Durkheim to.

In Social Science History, I argue that Weber builds on Hobbes and Durkheim builds on Rousseau. After discussing Hobbes, you could look at my comparison of Hobbes and Weber, clicking on the quotations to see how they fit into the extracts. This should get you into the issues and enable you to make your own interpretation.

If you follow this suggestion, the first part of your essay will analyse the relation between the individual and society in Hobbes. Then you will compare Hobbes to Weber.

• Introduction: Draft this at the start, but it will not be completed until you have finished the essay and can summarise your conclusions.

• Hobbes: How he relates the individual to society. This will discuss state of nature theory and how Hobbes' version is based on each of us having trains of our own ideas leading to our individual goals.

• Weber: How he relates the individual to society. This will discuss his method of analysing social action

• Hobbes and Weber: A comparison

The next point to decide is who to compare Durkheim to - and in what order. You might first compare Durkheim to Weber - and then consider how both compare to Hobbes. For example, ask yourself if Hobbes or Weber consider society "real" in the sense that Durkheim does.

• Durkheim: How he relates the individual to society.

• Durkheim and Weber comparison

• Conclusion: Comparing Durkheim and Weber to Hobbes (Summarise in the introduction)

Filmer and Locke :

	Read about the kind of essay we want

Is the family a good model for political society? Discuss in relation to Filmer and Locke. Relate your answer to both of Locke's Two Treatises on Government and to the writings of Robert Filmer.

Primary texts

You must use Locke 1689 Two Treatises of Government. The essay question requires you to use both of the Two Treatises. (The first one discusses Filmer). You can use the printed book, or the web extracts, or both.

You will probably find it helpful to use another secondary source: the web page on Roger Scruton contrasts the family model of society with the contract model. Scruton supports the family model because he argues that our allegiance to authority is based on a bond that is prior to any possibility of choice or contract.

I have also written my own discussion on the family in social theory to help you link issues together. It is a bad idea to start your essay with a general introduction to the family as a model for political society. Your essay should focus on Filmer and Locke's ideas.

A suggestion respecting planning:

Filmer and Locke both use arguments from revelation (the Bible) and from nature (science). The following basic plan may help you to cover each aspect of their arguments:

Theology and State of Nature

Explain about Filmer's Theological and Natural Law theories and Locke's State of Nature and Social Contract theories

Filmer

The family as a model for political society: Outline Filmer's basic argument from Locke's summary of it and the extracts from Filmer

Filmer's arguments from nature (philosophy - science) against the social contract and in favour of established power. Look at the index entry for nature in the Filmer extracts. Can you explain why the "natural power of kings" is reasonable (according to Filmer) whilst the "natural liberty of the people" is not? Can you do this without mentioning God or the Bible? You may find Scruton's explanation of the family model helpful here. Being a modern theorist, Scruton does not base his arguments on theology or the Bible.

Filmer's arguments from the will of God (theology and Biblical revelation) in favour of patriarchy as the model for political rule. The index entry for God in the Filmer extracts may help you here.

Locke

Outline Locke's opposing social contract view. Explain how Locke thinks government comes about. Explain the part that reason plays in this.

Outline Locke's arguments from theology and the Bible against Filmer and in favour of reason. These are summarised at the start of the second treatise

Explore Locke's arguments from nature (philosophy - science) about the social contract as the basis of political society. To do this, you may find it helpful to look at the distinction Locke makes between paternal and political power

Think about the issues: For example, the ability to govern oneself by reason is one that develops under supervision in the family. You could argue, therefore, that different laws of nature govern the family and politics, because in the family the children are being trained, whereas politics is a society governed by people with developed reason.

Comparison

Look at the advantages and disadvantages of taking either the family or social contract as the basis for theories about political society.

Although you will probably make the comparison after you have set out each theorist's case, it may become your argument, and be stated in the introduction.

Here are two sample arguments from other students' essays: The first includes an outline: "I will first outline the family model of Filmer and the contract model of Locke. I will then show how these represent the two types of model of political society that Roger Scruton divides political theories into. Filmer's family model is an example of conservative theory, Locke's contract model is an example of liberal theory. Finally, I will argue, briefly, that modern day Britain is not a hierarchical society on the family model, but a democratic liberal society consistent with Locke's contract model." The second is just the argument statement: "I will argue that Filmer's family model may well have reflected seventeenth century political society. In this sense, it was a good model for political society then. However, Locke's contract theory is more relevant in contemporary, democratic political society, where leaders are elected by consent."

Rousseau and the French revolution :

	Read about the kind of essay we want

Discuss Rousseau's ideas about society and how they relate to the French Revolution with special reference to either women or slavery

Look at the timeline for Rousseau and for the French Revolution - You will want to show knowledge of the history. Also look at the lecture notes and the advice on referencing this question

The two required sources are:

• Social Science History, Essay 4: Can theory redesign society? and

• the extracts from Rousseau.

Decide at the start whether your essay is about women or slavery. If this is undecided, you will be confused.

Rousseau's ideas about society are closely related to his ideas about reason. His ideas about society are also closely related to his ideas about slavery.

His ideas about reason are closely related to his ideas about women.

His ideas about society and reason are key issues in explaining his relevance to the French revolution.

Click here for a description of Rousseau's ideas that should help you sort these issues out in your mind. If necessary, adapt your plan to reflect the relevant relationships.

The central point to focus your essay is how the ideas of Rousseau about society related to the French Revolution and to women or slaves.

Remember that the history of social ideas is about theory and that this essay says it is about Rousseau's ideas. Theory will help you to focus your essay. Be careful not to get lost in empirical detail. We expect your essay to explain the theories behind the facts.

This is a possible plan (based on looking at several students' plans) to keep your essay focused. There are links to relevant reading and suggestions about issues to cover

Introduce Rousseau and explain that you will examine his ideas and how they relate to the French Revolution and to slavery. [or to women, if that is your choice]. You could be more specific and say which ideas. The general will is important. You could say which book/s he writes about this in. Notice that the most relevant books are different for slavery and women. The Social Contract is most relevant to slavery. Emile is most relevant to women.

Introduce the French Revolution, by saying that you will focus on the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen and how it relates to Rousseau's ideas. [Do not give a lot of history about the French Revolution]

Explain Rousseau's concept of the general will. You should explain the difference between "general" and "particular". Think about how the formation of the general will relates to our becoming human and social, and how it relates to our being able to use general ideas. Showing the nature of the social contract that makes us human and social is especially important if you have chosen slavery. Discussing general ideas is especially important if you have chosen women.

If your question is slavery: relate the general will to whether society is based on voluntary consent or forced contract

If your question is women: explain how women relate to the general will. Think about the extent to which Rousseau thinks women are capable of thinking generally - and why.

Relate the general will to the French Revolution. Click her for a section of Social Science History that could help you.

The family and slavery :

	Read about the kind of essay we want

Discuss the relevance of the family and slavery to the general theories of society of Aristotle Rousseau, and Olympe de Gouges

Read "what the slavery question needs" including What the title tells you - Ask questions - Suggested order (includes advice on general theories of society) - Conclusions - Sample introduction, references and bibliography - References example

The material for this essay will all be found in Social Science History, chapter four, and the extracts from authors.

The issues are discussed in Social Science History Essay 4: "Can theory redesign society?". This is a secondary source, but quotations from the authors are often links to the extracts from the authors work (Primary source). You can use the chapter as an introduction to the issues and then work on your own interpretation of the primary text.

The basic primary texts for this question are:

Aristotle on the state, slavery and women

Freedom and slavery in Rousseau's The Social Contract

Rousseau's Emile (Men, women and family)

Declaration of the Rights of Woman by Olympe de Gouges

You do not need another book - and you should use the extracts. Some students use Aristotle's Politics or Rousseau's Social Contract (rather than just the extracts) as well. In this case, the extracts act as a guide to the book.

The reading work for this question is not wide reading. It is careful reading of selected texts looking for possible answers to questions that you derive from the title. Some questions you can ask are listed in a paper on What the Slavery question needs. You need this paper.

The summary note on slavery should help you find your general direction for this essay. Be careful to use it by thinking about it, not copying it or repeating it with some words altered.

Rousseau and/or Wollstonecraft:

	Read about the kind of essay we want

Discuss the relation between reason, gender, the family and politics in the work of Rousseau and/or Wollstonecraft, with special reference to Emile and/or Vindications of the Rights of Women

Decide which question you want to answer: Rousseau and Wollstonecraft or Rousseau alone or   Wollstonecraft alone

The primary texts are J.J. Rousseau, 1762 Emile and M. Wollstonecraft 1792 A Vindication of the Rights of Woman. Clicking on the links will take you to extracts. You will also find extracts from J.J. Rousseau, 1762 The Social Contract on the web. Notice that, if you reference more than on Rousseau book from 1762, you will need to distinguish them by a letter (e.g. Rousseau 1762E and Rousseau 1762S). Guidance on referencing the web extracts is given on the extracts.

We recommend that you use the actual book for either Emile or Vindications of the Rights of Women and use the web extracts as a guide. If you use one of the books as your main text, you can then use the extracts alone for other texts.

Make sure that you

• focus on the question you are answering

• focus on the issues in the title

• focus on exploring your chosen texts for the author's ideas about the issues

Rousseau and Wollstonecraft

"Discuss the relation between reason, gender, the family and politics in the work of Rousseau and Wollstonecraft, with special reference to 'Emile' and 'Vindications of the Rights of Women'"

We will be looking for your discussion of the relationship between the concepts reason, gender, the family and politics in Rousseau and Wollstonecraft's work.

If you are not to get confused you will have to decide on an order for doing things. For example, you could deal with the relationship between the concepts in Rousseau's work and than compare that to the relationship in Wollstonecraft's.

We are expecting you to base your analysis very firmly on a reading of Emile and Vindications of the Rights of Women, and to show this through the references.

Rousseau

"Discuss the relation between reason, gender, the family and politics in the work of Rousseau with special reference to 'Emile'."

We will be looking for your discussion of the relationship between the concepts reason - gender - the family and politics in Rousseau's work. We expect you to base your analysis very firmly on reading Emile or Education, and to show this through the references.

The introduction and index to the web extracts can help you find relevant parts of Emile. Social Science History Chapter 4 can also help you find relevant parts, but do read the actual text, and make your own references and bibliography. Do not copy the references from Social Science History and do not let the content of Social Science History distract you from the essay title

This plan covers the points

What does Rousseau say about the family? - 1

In this you might look at what Rousseau says in the early part of the book about the mother and the education of the child

Rousseau's concept of reason

The first pages of Book One of Emile need careful reading. These pages begin:

"God makes all thing good; man meddles with them and they become evil."

Think about how, according to Rousseau, reason can be developed naturally in a child.

Gender and reason

Whilst the first four books discuss the development of reason in Emile, the fifth book discusses its development in Sophy. Rousseau says

"But for her sex, a woman is a man..." and later "Yet where sex is concerned man and woman are unlike; each is the complement of the other; the difficulty in comparing them lies in our inability to decide, in either case, what is a matter of sex and what is not."

What does Rousseau say about the family? - 2

In this you might look at what Rousseau says in chapter five about the the mother and the education of the child

How does Rousseau think reason relates to politics?

The index to the extracts will help you a little, but for this part of the analysis you will need the printed book.

Wollstonecraft

"Discuss the relation between reason, gender, the family and politics in the work of Wollstonecraft, with special reference to `Vindications of the Rights of Women`"

We will be looking for your discussion of the relationship between the concepts reason - gender - the family and politics in Wollstonecraft's work. We expect you to base your analysis very firmly on reading Vindications of the Rights of Women, and to show this through the references.

The first page of the web extracts from Vindications of the Rights of Women will help you to find relevant passages. Two chapters in Social Science History - chapter 3 and chapter 4 - will also help you find relevant parts of "A Vindication of the Rights of Woman" to read. But make your own references and bibliography. Do not copy the references from Social Science History and do not let the content of Social Science History distract you from the essay title.

This plan covers all the points

Wollstonecraft's concept of reason

You need to understand the first chapter "The Rights and Involved Duties of Mankind Considered", which discusses reason in general. This is the key chapter for understanding Wollstonecraft's general theory of reason.

Gender and reason

You may want to consider the passage from chapter two that says:

"Strengthen the female mind by enlarging it, and there will be end to blind obedience but, as blind obedience is ever sought for by power, tyrants and sensualities are in the right when they endeavour to keep women in the dark"

What does Wollstonecraft say about the family?

The chapter on Duty to Parents is clearly (from its title) relevant

How does Wollstonecraft think reason relates to politics?

The key chapter is, again, the first chapter "The Rights and Involved Duties of Mankind Considered", which discusses reason in relation to conservative ideas (prescription) and how the world might change for the better.

Total institutions

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Relate the theories of Goffman, Bentham, and one other theorist from the following list to the development of total institutions in the 19th century:

Ashley, Beccaria, Foucault, Malthus, Owen, Adam Smith,

The question asks you to relate the theories of your three authors to the development of total institutions in the 19th century. It does not say that each author wrote about total institutions or about the 19th century. The only author in the list who used the term "total institution" is Goffman. He created the concept. Smith and Beccaria died before the 19th century began. You need to form an idea of what aspect of an author's theories is relevant and also an idea of how the total institution/s you choose developed in the 19th century.

You main sources should be the web sources that are linked to from this advice. You should also use Social Science History, Essay 5 on Social Science and the 1834 Poor Law. The Theories that Smith, Bentham, Malthus and Owen made (Referencing advice for web version)

Goffman defines total institutions.

Everybody should use the material on Total Institutions in Social Science History - and show how to reference it correctly.

Use the Goffman extracts on Total Institutions (referencing advice). You may also want to use the essay "On the Characteristics of Total Institutions" in Goffman's book Asylums. Essays on the social situation of mental patients and other inmates.

Use the Bentham resources listed on the timeline.

Suggestions on planning

Somewhere near the start of your essay you will need to discuss the definition of a total institution as defined by Goffman.

You will need to introduce the institution or institutions whose development in the nineteenth century you think most relevant to your essay. If, for example, you are writing about the modern prison, you will need to explain what that is and how it differs as a form of punishment from what went before.

You will need to explain Bentham's plan for a panopticon, a model institution that could be applied to different purposes: prison, mental hospital, school, workhouse etc and you will need to explain how this relates to his utilitarianism.

Your third author will not necessarily be discussed last. For example, if your third author is Beccaria, you will want to discuss his theory of rational punishment and what he says about imprisonment. Both these issues would most easily be discussed before you discuss Bentham and the development of the modern prison.

Here is an example of a plan for an essay with Beccaria as its third author and the modern prisons as the institution

Introduction

Goffman and his definition of total institutions

How Goffman's concept of a total institution can be applied to the modern prison. What the modern prison is and what it replaced

What Beccaria says about imprisonment - Before the development of the modern prison. What was a prison in Beccaria's time?

Beccaria's theory of rational punishment

Bentham's idea of a Panopticon

Explain how Bentham's utilitarian theory relates to the Panopticon.

Goffman's concepts of primary and secondary adjustments could be used to consider why the modern prison is not as efficient as Bentham thought it would be,

21st Century policy:

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Outline the ideas of Adam Smith or Jeremy Bentham or Thomas Malthus or Robert Owen and discuss their significance today

Suggested plan:

Outline the ideas of your chosen author. This should be done using the sources listed immediately below

Discuss their significance today

Sources to use for ideas: Your first source should be Social Science History, Essay 5 on Social Science and the 1834 Poor Law. The Theories that Smith, Bentham, Malthus and Owen made. Make sure that you provide in-text references to this and enter it in your bibliography. Clicking on these links will take you to a sensible place to start for each author: Smith - Bentham - Malthus - Owen

You should also use the relevant extracts from your chosen author, to make your own analysis of his ideas: Smith (referencing) - Bentham (referencing) - Owen (referencing) (extracts) - or complete text of Malthus (referencing)

A.L. Morton's The Life and Ideas of Robert Owen (1962), also has extracts from Owen.

Sources that will help with policy today, and some ideas about what you could discuss

Adam Smith See booklist and and weblinks - Wealth and Poverty: Malthus and Ricardo (referencing) and Hayek and freedom - relevant to Smith respecting spontaneous order. Look at the Social Science History Timeline from 1977 - See Thatcherism for more ideas.

Jeremy Bentham See booklist and weblinks, Hayek and freedom respecting constructed order. Surveillance, crime time, biographical literature review (referencing). Any treatment of Bentham will need to explain his utilitarianism (referencing).

You could use Social Science History Chapter 5 to relate Bentham to social security. To do this, you will need to explain the poor law policies of the nineteenth century and how the balance of pains and pleasures, outlined by utilitarianism, was used (by the Royal Commission) to argue that an artificial pain (the workhouse) was needed to deter people from claiming benefit. You will then need to consider if social security policy today is concerned with encouraging people to work and discouraging them from claiming benefit. You could consider different classes of people: policy about old people like Annie and Albert might be different from policy towards single parents, for example. A textbook that could help you is Walsh, Stephens and Moore 2000 - See Thatcherism for more ideas.

You could use the article on Surveillance to relate Bentham to prisons or to CCVT cameras

Thomas Malthus See booklist and weblinks, Wealth and Poverty: Malthus and Ricardo (referencing) - See Thatcherism for more ideas.

Robert Owen See booklist and weblinks, Radicals, socialists and early feminists (referencing), biographical literature review (referencing) - See Thatcherism for more ideas.

You may want to relate issues to policies of the post 1979 Thatcher government, and/or the post 1997 Blair government. Chapter 15. "The state, social policy and welfare" of Fulcher and Scott' Sociology should help. Policies you could relate to include the New Deal Terms that may be useful include enterprise culture and dependency culture , which is defined in one dictionary as "A type of society which relies upon, and often expects, state benefits and other support to maintain it." You could also look for phrases like "welfare to work". Dependency Culture? Welfare, Woman and Work by Mary McIntosh BBC Vote 2001 Welfare to Work

Other sources elsewhere include:

Dearlove & Saunders 1984, Introduction to British Politics chapter 8 "Managing the Economy".

The Economist 14.7.1990 pp 11-12 "The Modern Adam Smith"

Winch, D. 16.7.1990 Adam Smith: Not Just the Saint of Free Enterprise The Guardian 16.7.1990

Holland, S. 1988 Why Adam Smith was not a Tory New Socialist May/June 1988

King, D.S. 1987 The New Right: Politics, Markets and Citizenship chapter 5: "Liberal Economics 1: the Market"

Skinner, A. 1970/1974 Introduction to the Penguin (abridged) Smith, Adam 1776 An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations

Benevolo, L. 1963 The Origin of Modern Town Planning This show how ideas like those of Robert Owen relate to the planning movement in urban development.

Hardy D. 1979 Alternative Communities in Nineteenth Century England. Chapter two "The Communities of Utopian Socialism".

Hardy, D. and Davidson, l. (Editors) 1989 Utopian Thought and Communal Experience. (a collection of essays by different authors)

Silver, H. 1969 Robert Owen on Education

Heilbroner, R.L. 1980 (5th edition) The Worldly Philosophers. The Lives, Times and Ideas of the Great Economic Thinkers. Written in a very lively style.

Heilbroner, R.L. 1989 "The Triumph of Capitalism" The New Yorker 23.1.1989

Barber, W.J. 1967 A History of Economic Thought. Penguin. Includes chapters on Adam Smith and Malthus

Discuss the relation of utilitarian and owenite principles to politics, gender, the family, sex and class in Wheeler and Thompson's Appeal

The primary text is Thompson, W. 1825 Appeal of One-half of the Human Race, Women, Against The Pretensions of the Other Half, Men, to Retain them in Political, and Thence in Civil and Domestic Slavery. Extracts from this can be read on the web. The planning suggestions (below) include links to what this says about utilitarianism, owenism, politics, gender, family, sex and class.

Thompson criticises an article written by James Mill (John Stuart Mill's father) in 1820 called an Essay on Government, which you should also use

The argument of James Mill's article is outlined in Social Science History, Essay 1: Theory and the Imagination.

Radicals, Socialists and Early Feminists (SHE Document 8) discusses Thompson and Wheeler and the intellectual roots of their theories in Owenism and Utilitarianism. The lecture notes on Bentham, Mill and Thompson and Wheeler will also help you relate your answer to the axioms of utilitarianism

Owenism and Utilitarianism are also discussed in Social Science History, Essay 5: "Social Science and the 1834 Poor Law"

In order to relate the concepts "gender and family" to "politics and class" in Wheeler and Thompson's Appeal, you will need to consider utilitarian and owenite theory and to explain Thompson and Wheeler's criticism of James Mill. The notes on axioms will help you.

Suggestions respecting planning:

Discuss the relation of utilitarian and owenite principles to politics, gender, the family, sex and class in Wheeler and Thompson's Appeal

In explaining each of the following points, I will refer to what Thompson and Wheeler say:.

Bentham's concept of utilitarianism - Science and its principles.
Owenism - mutual co-operation and equality.
Thompson and Wheeler's synthesis of utilitarianism and Owenism
[See Jackie Lugg's article and work back to Thompson and Wheeler
James Mill's version of utilitarianism
James Mills article Essay on Government: A scientific politics?
Thompson and Wheeler's criticisms of Essay on Government

How this relates to:
Gender
Family
Politics
Sex
Class

These theorists argue very systematically from axioms (first principles): It is the key to sorting out what they are saying. Make sure that you understand what Thompson and Wheeler say about

1) the fundamental axiom ("primary law of human nature") of (Bentham's) utilitarianism -

2) James Mill's axiom - Which Thompson and Wheeler say is secondary, and which they disagree.

3) The axioms of owenism.

Notice that there are two parts to Thompson and Wheeler's argument. They argue that James Mill's position on women is inconsistent with his own axioms. They then argue their own case based on Owen's axioms.

When you read about utilitarianism, please remember that it is James Mill you are writing about and not his son John Stuart Mill (who agreed with Thompson and Wheeler respecting women and sympathised with their ideas about socialism).

Family, gender, politics and class in Mill and Taylor

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Discuss the relation of gender and family to politics and class in Mill and Taylor's essay on The Future of the Labouring Classes

The primary text is Mill and Taylor's essay on The Future of the Labouring Classes Referencing advice Make your basic draft by following the planning notes (Focus your mind) The web copy has numbered paragraphs to assist referencing, and indexes that will help you find the most relevant passages. Referencing by paragraph, rather than page, is recommended for this question. There is a summary of Mill and Taylor essay with references, to help you. Begin by reading this and following the links through to the actual essay

Focus your mind: Do not be distracted from the focus of the essay by secondary sources. Your marks will depend on answering the points in the essay question, through an interpretation of the primary text. The staff marker will look carefully at your interpretation of Mill and Taylor's essay and your referencing to it. A substantial part of your essay must be a tightly referenced interpretation of the Future of the Labouring Classes with respect to the concepts in the question. To prepare a plan, and then a draft, for your essay, use the summary of Mill and Taylor's essay and its web index to identify passages relating to each concept. Try the identification in this order: Mill and Taylor On class in dependence theory. What is the political relation of the classes in this theory? On class in self-dependence theory. How does political activity relate to the development of a self determining labouring class? On gender in dependence theory. Try the index on women - marriage and motherhood On gender in self-dependence theory. Also see the index on women - marriage and motherhood What have Mill and Taylor to say about the family? As well as the sections on Women in Industry - Children - Women - try the index on marriage and motherhood - children - Using this plan enables you to systematically construct an answer. One way to start would be to make a collection of quotes relevant to each point, and then explain the quotes in your own words - See advice on distinguish quotations from your own words

Family, gender, politics and class in The Communist Manifesto

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Discuss the relation of gender and family to politics and class in Marx and Engels' Communist Manifesto.

The primary text is Marx and Engels' Communist Manifesto Make your basic draft by following the planning notes (Focus your mind) Read the referencing advice The web copies have numbered paragraphs to assist referencing, and indexes that will help you find the most relevant passages. It is much better (and easier) to reference by these paragraph numbers rather than page numbers

Focus your mind: Do not be distracted from the focus of the essay by secondary sources. Your marks will depend on answering the points in the essay question, through an interpretation of the primary text. The staff marker will look at your interpretation of the Communist Manifesto and your referencing to it. A substantial part of your essay must be a tightly referenced interpretation of the Communist Manifesto with respect to the concepts in the question. An initial exercise in preparing for the essay would be to use the web index to The Communist Manifesto to identify passages relating to each concept. Try the identification in this order: Communist Manifesto: On class See index. See how class relates to history On politics: See index. See how politics relates to class conflict On family: See index. How does the Communist Manifesto relate family to classes and class conflict? On gender: How does the Communist Manifesto relate the relations between men and women to the family? This is also the order in which the ideas in your essay may flow easiest. Marx and Engels argue that "The history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles", which may mean that everything needs to be related to class struggle as the key concept Using this plan enables you to systematically construct an answer. One way to start would be to make a collection of quotes relevant to each point, and then explain the quotes in your own words - See advice on distinguish quotations from your own words

Apostrophe devil tip: His name is Friederich Engels (with an s). These sentences are correct: "Engels has an s at the end of his name" and "Engels' name has an s at the end." If you do not know why: Study apostrophes

Crime, statistics class, family, sex, and politics

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Discuss the relation of crime and criminal statistics to class, the family, sex, and politics in Engels' The Condition of the Working Class in England and Marx and Engels' Communist Manifesto.

To answer this question you will first want to find out something that Engels says about each of the issues in the title. Clicking on the following links to The Condition of the Working Class in England will take you to relevant passages: Crime - Criminal statistics - Class - Family - Sex - Politics Using this as a plan will enable you to systematically construct an answer. One way to start would be to make a collection of quotes relevant to each point, and then explain the quotes in your own words - See advice on distinguish quotations from your own words You can then move on to a more detailed examination. The questions (with links) below give you more detailed guidance on each issue.

For your more detailed examination, you will need the printed book.

The web extracts will give guidance to the book. When using the extracts, be careful to follow links to timelines and resources. This way you will find, for example, that John Lea has written an article (online) that discusses Engels and crime and guides you to relevant passages of The Condition of the Working Class in England

When you have made your initial analysis of these issue in that book, you will want to make a similar analysis of The Communist Manifesto. Here, however, you will concentrate on class, family and politics. The whole of the Manifesto is included on the web. The index will help you find the relevant passages and the guidance for the 1840s question should also help.

Some questions to ask yourself and answer in your essay: (The red links go to Engels, blue links to the Communist Manifesto and black links to supporting explanation)

Crime What does Engels mean by demoralisation and brutalisation? How do they relate to the ways in which the workers might respond to their conditions? (See the link to Jock Young's analysis)

Statistics What are "statistics"? - Notice how new the science was - What are the statistics that Engels used, and where did he get them from? What inferences does he draw about crime? How does he use statistics to relate crime to class? Are the indicators he uses for class good ones? You could ask yourself if the way he chooses to decide who is working class is a fair one. A better way to think about this would be to ask if his indicator (reading and writing) is valid and reliable. Researchers always have problems finding good indicators for their concepts and statistics was a new science - So Engels had to use the statistics that were available. How well do you think he did?

Can you think of any other interpretation/s of the statistics?

Class What classes does Engels talk about? Explain them. What does the Communist Manifesto say about classes and history?

Family: Engels says "Thus the social order makes family life almost impossible for the worker" . What social order is he talking about? How does it differ from the social order before it? [Engels talks about the industrial revolution - Can you relate this to what the Communist Manifesto says about successive social orders?

How does the industrial revolution make family life "almost impossible for the worker"? What does Engels mean by family life? How does this compare to society before the industrial revolution?

Sex What does Engels say about this? Does he think it good or bad? How does it relate to family, class and crime? What does the Communist Manifesto say about sex? How does it relate this to the families of the working class and the bourgeoisie?

Crime and Politics In the chapter on Labour Movements, Engels deals with crime and politics as different types of working class response to the new social order. Which is the better response, and why?

Apostrophe devil tip: His name is Friederich Engels (with an s). These sentences are correct: "Engels has an s at the end of his name" and "Engels' name has an s at the end." If you do not know why: Study apostrophes

John Stuart Mill's The Subjection of Women:

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Is the family a good model for political society? Discuss in relation to J.S.Mill, with special reference to his book on The Subjection of Women

The primary text is Mill 1869 The Subjection of Women.

The book consists of four chapters, without headings, and with long paragraphs. The advice below will help you analyse it. There is also a separate page of notes to help you understand. The notes on the family as a school may be particularly helpful.

Use the web extracts as your first source. You can work from them to a printed copy of the book, using bookmarks if it is a library copy, or annotating it if it is your own. Concentrate on analysing key passages that relate to the question

Focus your mind:

The subordination of women to men should just be an aspect of your answer. The essay is about the family as a model for political society. Make sure that this is the focus of your essay, by taking the following advice

Look at the extracts from Subjection of Women and identify parts of the extracts that relate the family to political society. Some of these are indexed - Look in the margin on the right hand side. There are key quotes arranged by chapter followed by a word and phrases index

Pay particular attention to the following passages, to get your ideas started on the family as a model: (click on them to go to the full extracts). In these passages Mill contrasts two types of family. The one is despotic, authoritarian or absolute, where the wife and children are in a state of dependency on the male head, the other, in some sense, is democratic. Think about the idea of the family as a school for political society.

" The equality of married persons before the law ... is the only means of rendering [making] the daily life of mankind ... a school of moral cultivation... the only school of genuine moral sentiment is society between equals."

"the true virtue of human beings is fitness to live together as equals; claiming nothing for themselves but what they as freely concede to everyone else; regarding command of any kind as an exceptional necessity, and in all cases a temporary one; and preferring, whenever possible, the society of those with whom leading and following can be alternate and reciprocal."

"To these virtues, nothing in life as at present constituted gives cultivation by exercise. The family is a school of despotism, in which the virtues of despotism, but also its vices, are largely nourished."

"Citizenship, in free countries, is partly a school of society in equality; but citizenship fills only a small place in modern life, and does not come near the daily habits or inmost sentiments. The family, justly constituted, would be the real school of the virtues of freedom."

Analysing the question and planning:

A successful plan must cover each aspect of the question. The following plan should enable you to do this. The question is repeated first so that you can check each concept against it and make sure nothing is missing. In the plan, the two most important parts of the essay are highlighted in bold.

There are links that either take you directly to a relevant parts of the extract, or take you to the index on the right hand side when their are many relevant parts.

Using this plan enables you to systematically construct an answer. One way to start would be to make a collection of quotes relevant to each point, and then explain the quotes in your own words - See advice on distinguish quotations from your own words

Is the family a good model for political society? Discuss in relation to J.S.Mill, with special reference to his book on The Subjection of Women

• Explain what the family is in relation to Mill's Subjection of Women. You may like to discuss what Mill says about marriage. Make clear that the essay is about the family, and not just the role or status of women. You will need to look at what he says about children, for example.

• Explain political society (issues related to government and democracy and despotism , force and law, for example) in relation to Mill's Subjection of Women. Notice the way Mill compares the family and politics (Use the word and phrases index). What way does he see society moving? What way does he see the family moving? (notice the chart in the notes). For this part, you may also want to use the ideas of Mill and Harriet Taylor about dependency and self- dependency in The Future of the Labouring Classes.

• Discuss why Mill thinks that the family is in some way a model for political society. Say a little about what you mean by model. You may find the Social Science Dictionary article on absolute and constitutional government helps.

• In what ways does Mill think the family might be a bad model for political society? Here you will want to write about the family as a school of despotism

• In what ways does Mill think the family might be a good model for political society? Here you will want to write about the family, justly constituted, becoming the real school of the virtues of freedom.

Engels' Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State:

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Discuss the relation of gender to politics in the work of Engels with special reference to Engels' Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State, the emergence of civilisation and/or the future of society. You may, if you wish, relate your answer to the comments of De Beauvoir, Firestone, or another author, on Engels. Or, if you wish, you can relate discussion of the future of society to News from Nowhere by William Morris .

This is an and/or question. Which means you must edit the question to select the part that you are going to answer. Here is the question again with the points of choice highlighted:

Discuss the relation of gender to politics in the work of Engels with special reference to Engels' Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State, the emergence of civilisation and/or the future of society. You may, if you wish, relate your answer to the comments of De Beauvoir, [or] Firestone, or another author, on Engels. Or, if you wish, you can relate discussion of the future of society to News from Nowhere by William Morris.

To begin focusing you need to take out the question you intend to answer. For example:

Discuss the relation of gender to politics in the work of Engels with special reference to Engels' Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State, and the emergence of civilisation.

OR

Discuss the relation of gender to politics in the work of Engels with special reference to Engels' Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State, and the future of society, with discussion related to News from Nowhere by William Morris.

The primary text is Engels' The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State (1884). Make sure that most of your references are to Engels' text and not to any introduction by the editor of the edition you use. The web extracts have numbered paragraphs to assist referencing Do not let the detail overpower you. If you use the index under "Women", or similar entries, it will point you to the key passages. You can also use the index to the web extracts, including the entry on women.

There are web copies of News from Nowhere and of Simone De Beauvoir on Engels

Planning the main part of your essay

The main part of any question you compose will be your explanation of what Engels says in Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State about the relation of gender to politics. You will either be showing what he says about the "the world historical defeat of the female sex" and how that relates to the emergence of civilisation or you will be explaining gender and politics in the future (communist) society that Engels envisages [Or both]

The lecture notes will guide you through Engels' theory. These include Shulamith Firestone's chart of Engels' overview of history from before history (writing) to the envisioned future of a communist society. This has links through to Engels' text and you should make good use of it.

You can also read an essay by Jo Twomey (a previous student) in which she deals with both the emergence of civilisation and future society, relating her answer to Engels and Morris.

Apostrophe devil tip: His name is Friederich Engels (with an s). These sentences are correct: "Engels has an s at the end of his name" and "Engels' name has an s at the end." If you do not know why: Study apostrophes

Freud and society

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Discuss the relationship between sexuality, gender and personality in Freud's An Outline of Psychoanalysis. How does his theory of the development of the individual relate to his theory about society?

A wide range of information about Freud will not help you. You need works by Freud. Textbooks and most simple introductions make it more difficult for you because they are not focused on the question. They will distract you from making your your own interpretation of the texts.

If you need a plain English introduction to the texts, there are some on this website. Beautiful Baby is an essay about this question by a Laura Leland. There are also two articles by Andrew Roberts: Jean Martin Charcot and Blanche Wittmann and Sigmund Freud on personality and society

We want you to focus on interpreting works by Freud, and to show us, through the references and bibliography, the evidence for your interpretation. Apart from An Outline of Psychoanalysis, you should use at least one other work by Freud. A work means a book or articles that Freud wrote. You can use Freud extracts on this web, or you can use the extracts as a guide to a printed book. The staff marker will concentrate on the relationship you show between the Freud texts you use and what you argue. The parts of your essay with references to (and quotes from) the Freud texts will, therefore, be the main ones that gain you marks. You will gain credit for a careful explanation of the recommended texts, (even if you find them difficult to understand and explain). You will lose a lot of credit (and could fail) by relying on an explanation in a text-book or book about Freud, rather than trying to interpret his own writings.

Freud, S. 1938 An Outline of Psychoanalysis must be your main text. You are recommended to use the web extracts as a guide to the parts of An Outline of Psychoanalysis that are most relevant to the essay title. The draft for your essay can be based on these extracts. They cover all the issues in the title. You should do the exercise on excavating Freud. This takes you through the web extracts in a way that covers every aspect of the question. It links to society through what Freud said about superego, and is followed by notes on the society aspect of the question. (Also see society notes below). By doing the exercise on excavating Freud you will provide yourself with a good first draft based on one text. Read each question, click through to the text. Answer the question in your own words. Reference. We assume that everyone does this exercise as the basis of his or her essay, and then chooses a second text, to add depth and interest.

Notice that the extracts have explanatory links. For example, terms like "brain" "mind" "psychical" "physical" "somatic" "id" and "ego" are underlined and, by clicking on them, you are taken to an explanation.

• S. Freud, 1900 The Interpretation of Dreams, This is a long book from which I have also put some extracts on the web as a guide to relevant parts. The online extracts include a dream and how it was interpreted. You can read each element of the dream and just click for the relevant interpretation. This exercise will give you a good understanding of Freud's interpretation of symbols. (Referencing)

• Freud's five lectures on The Origin and Development of Psychoanalysis (in full on the web) were given for lay people to understand and will help you understand what psychoanalyis is and the significance of sex in Freud's theory (Referencing)

• The extracts from Totem and Taboo show how Freud extended his analysis from the individual personality to society (in this case to ancient myths). (Referencing)

• Civilisation and its Discontents will also help with the application of Freud's analysis of the individual to society. The web extracts from this include links to early nineteenth century photographs that may stimulate your own thinking about the relationship between sex, gender and society (including politics and civilisation). (Referencing)

• An essay or essays from Sigmund Freud: The Essentials of Psychoanalysis, edited by Anna Freud (1986). (Referencing)

Analysing the Freud question

You may find it helps to analyse the question this way: What is special about Freud's ideas on sexuality? How does that relate to gender? Do boys and girls develop psychologically the same way (according to Freud). How does this development relate to the immediate society (family) that boys and girls belong to? Will this relate to the wider society in any way?

There is an issue, not mentioned in the title, that is essential to a focused answer to this question based on the recommended text. It is essential to discuss the oedipus/electra complex if one is to relate sexuality to gender and to the psychological development of boys and girls. This is also essential if one is to relate this development to the family or the wider society.

Freud and Society

Society is the part of the Freud question that causes many people the most problems. These problems are good problems because they mean you are thinking about something that is theoretically important. There are different ways of tackling any question. What follows is one way, and one interpretation, to help you think constructively about the issues.

Click here for an introduction to a similar Freud question based on the essay a student wrote in a previous year. Look at this to see how it deals with society. If you mark the word "authority" you will be focusing on a key to the society part of the question.

Authority is a very general concept. It can be argued that understanding why we take notice of authority is the key to understanding what society is. Students who have studied the sociologist Max Weber may recall that authority is an important concept in his analysis. So, if Freud explains why we obey authority, it is very significant for social theory.

Notice the consequences of Freud's analysis. It follows from his argument that our reasons for obeying authority are not any rational reasons that we may give, but irrational reasons rooted in our unconscious and related to our childhood perception of parental authority and the drama of the psychological sexual conflict involved.

Another approach would be to consider how Freud uses the family, and his theory of the Oedipus complex, as a model for explaining society and anthropological myth. For this you would relate your interpretation of Freud's theory of personality, based on An Outline of Psychoanalysis to his explanation of anthropological myth in Totem and Taboo

Suggestions respecting planning:

This student plan follows the order of concepts in the title:

Freud's theories on sexuality
Freud's theories on gender
Freud's theories on personality
Summary of his theory of the individual
Freud on society and how it relates to the theory of the individual

Such a plan should see you through a first draft that is based on the Outline of Psychoanalysis extracts. The excavating Freud exericise will help you construct a good basic draft on this plan. You will then need to adapt it to bring in your second work by Freud.

Durkheim and Merton's Criminology

	Read about the kind of essay we want

Outline and compare Emile Durkheim and Robert Merton's theories of society and anomie To what extent are they blaming society for crime?.

Look at the timeline for Durkheim and Merton. Also look at the advice on referencing this question - This question has an example essay (the Durkheim and Merton page) associated with it that will help you to get an overview. The essay changes in response to problems that students have.

Analysing the question and planning:

You will not be able to comment on the extent Durkheim or Merton blame society for crime before you have read about, thought about and written about their theories of society and anomie. Do this after you have carefully researched and written the main parts of the question

You need to research and write your essay in stages. Be clear about each stage of the question before moving on to the next. For example, study and write about Durkeim's theory of society before dealing with his theory of anomie. Each step is a substantial task in itself and one leads on to the other.

This is a logical plan to follow: (Click on the links to go to advice about each stage.) The plan means you should not get confused by the differences between Durkheim and Merton.

1. Durkheim's theory of society
2. Durkheim's theory of anomie
   How does it relate to his theory of society?
3. To what extent does Durkheim blame society for crime?
   How does Durkheim's theory of crime relate to his theory of society and his theory of anomie?
4. Merton's theory of society
   How does it differ from Durkheim?
5. Merton's theory of anomie
   How does it relate to his theory of society?
6. To what extent does Merton blame society for crime?
   How does Merton's theory of crime relate to his theory of society and his theory of anomie?
7. Final passage of comparison in which you might draw your own conclusions

Different sources will be needed for different parts of the question:

With respect to Durkheim's theory of society your source should be Social Science History, Essay Six: Durkheim and Weber's Contrasting Imaginations. Also the material on society in the Social Science Dictionary and the extracts from Durkheim (notice index society). [Note the warning about text-books below]

With respect to Durkheim's theory of anomie, use the material on norms and anomie in the Social Science Dictionary, and the extracts from Durkheim (notice index anomie). Use the index to read what Durkheim says about anomie and the dictionary entries to think about its significance. If you (also) use textbooks about anomie, you should compare them with what Durkheim says, and consider the possibility that the textbook writer has mis-interpreted him. I argue that Durkheim did not believe the division of labour leads to community disintegration. Most textbooks seem to assume he does: But they do not usually give references to his writing. Durkheim argues that the division of labour takes place to create organic solidarity1 - So the anomic division of labour is abnormal (and you need to explain it).

With respect to Merton's theory of society use the extracts from Merton. It is not as clear how he considers society as it is with Durkheim, so you will need more creative thinking. Look at terms like structure and culture. Try to work out what he means by them, and how they relate to society. He says that describing individuals in structural terms means "locating these people in their inter- connected social statuses". This may suggest hierarchy and power to you. Merton, like Talcott Parsons analyses society in terms of structure and function . (See structural functionalism). Also like Parsons, he analyses other systems to the social system, which are thought of as inter-related. The most important, from your point of view, is the cultural system. The specific cultural system Merton discusses is American Culture.

With respect to Merton's theory of anomie, use the extracts from Merton, and the material on norms and anomie in the Social Science Dictionary When reading Merton, think about the adaptations people make to American culture, and the strains towards anomie created by (amongst other things) inequality of opportunity in the American social structure. His language needs thinking about carefully. You will need to understand the conflict (strain) that he sees between goals and means (methods) and the different individual adaptations to American culture that he envisages people making. Understanding and explaining what he says about different adaptations (conformity, innovation, ritualism, retreatism and rebellion) will not only provide content for your essay and lead you on to show the strain between structure (the hierarchy of power and opportunity) and American culture in Merton's theory.

We want you to show that you have tried to interpret what Durkheim and Merton say, as distinct from what other people have written about them. It is therefore important that you use the extracts

If you want to read more deeply, the web material from Durkheim and Merton may be used as an introduction to one of their printed books. It will point you to relevant parts of the book that are worth careful reading. You may find it particularly helpful to read "Social Structure and Anomie" in R.K. Merton's Social Theory and Social Structure. [Class number 301.01 MER in Enfield Campus library]

Some apparently simple introductions to the subject, like Haralambos can mislead you. For example, Haralambos gives a controversial interpretation of the authors without warning that it is controversial. An example of this is Haralambos's argument that Durkheim was a fuctionalist. Introductory text books are not recommended for this question, but, if you choose to use one, make sure you compare its interpretation with your own interpretation of what Durkheim and Merton actually say, as this is what the staff marker will be most interested in. If you use text-books, such as Giddens' Sociology, you should use them critically. For example, if you use a text book definition (of anomie, for example) say whose definition it is and evaluate it by comparing it to your own interpretation of the extracts from Durkheim and Merton. It is your own interpretation that matters. The entry on Anthony Giddens should help you see his side of the arguments and Durkheim's - and why they differ.

It should be simpler, and probably more effective, to concentrate on your own interpretation (controversial or otherwise!) of the recommended reading from the beginning.

Crime blame The issue of the extent to which Durkheim and Merton blame society for crime comes at the end of the Durkheim and Merton sections of your essay. Confused students are often trying to answer this part of the question before they have written the early parts of the essay. This cannot be done.

However, you will want to know something about Durkheim and Merton's theories of crime in order to relate them to their theories of society and anomie. You will get this from the Durkheim extracts and Merton extracts. I have written a brief introduction to the extracts on Durkheim's theory of crime on the crime timeline.

Group Discussions

One group on Durkheim and Merton discussed why Merton thought of himself as a functionalist, but Durkheim did not. We discussed the functional analysis of the roles of the state and religion in the theories of Marx and Engels. Andrew argued that it was very difficult to find a social theorist who does not make some kind of functional analysis. The group left considering how Weber fits in.

Another discussed Rousseau, Durkheim and Merton and which of them is most concerned about society. We decided that it was very relevant to all, but that Durkheim considers it more real (gives it more substance) than the others. Andrew suggested that the view of society held by Rousseau and the French revolutionaries who write the Declaration of the Rights of Man could be what Hayek calls constructed order, whereas Durkheim's mechanical and organic solidarities are both spontaneous orders. Our discussion of society led on to crime, statistics and anomie. We decided that, for Durkheim, what defines crime is the punishment. It is this, also, that consolidates the spontaneous moral order of society. The key to understanding Durkheim's view of anomie is dialogue over the rules of society, so that they are internalised or owned. We attempted to relate this back to Rousseau and the general will.